Best practices with Amazon Aurora MySQL - Amazon Aurora
Determining which DB instance you are connected toBest practices for Aurora MySQL performance and scalingBest practices for Aurora MySQL high availabilityRecommendations for MySQL features

Best practices with Amazon Aurora MySQL

This topic includes information on best practices and options for using or migrating data to an Amazon Aurora MySQL DB cluster. The information in this topic summarizes and reiterates some of the guidelines and procedures that you can find in Managing an Amazon Aurora DB cluster.

Determining which DB instance you are connected to

To determine which DB instance in an Aurora MySQL DB cluster a connection is connected to, check the innodb_read_only global variable, as shown in the following example.

SHOW GLOBAL VARIABLES LIKE 'innodb_read_only';

The innodb_read_only variable is set to ON if you are connected to a reader DB instance. This setting is OFF if you are connected to a writer DB instance, such as primary instance in a provisioned cluster.

This approach can be helpful if you want to add logic to your application code to balance the workload or to ensure that a write operation is using the correct connection. This technique only applies to Aurora clusters using single-master replication. For multi-master clusters, all the DB instances have the setting innodb_read_only=OFF.

Best practices for Aurora MySQL performance and scaling

You can apply the following best practices to improve the performance and scalability of your Aurora MySQL clusters.

Using T instance classes for development and testing

Amazon Aurora MySQL instances that use the db.t2, db.t3, or db.t4g DB instance classes are best suited for applications that do not support a high workload for an extended amount of time. The T instances are designed to provide moderate baseline performance and the capability to burst to significantly higher performance as required by your workload. They are intended for workloads that don't use the full CPU often or consistently, but occasionally need to burst. We recommend only using the T DB instance classes for development and test servers, or other non-production servers. For more details on the T instance classes, see Burstable performance instances.

If your Aurora cluster is larger than 40 TB, don't use the T instance classes. When your database has a large volume of data, the memory overhead for managing schema objects can exceed the capacity of a T instance.

Don't enable the MySQL Performance Schema on Amazon Aurora MySQL T instances. If the Performance Schema is enabled, the instance might run out of memory.

Tip

If your database is sometimes idle but at other times has a substantial workload, you can use Aurora Serverless v2 as an alternative to T instances. With Aurora Serverless v2, you define a capacity range and Aurora automatically scales your database up or down depending on the current workload. For usage details, see Using Aurora Serverless v2. For the database engine versions that you can use with Aurora Serverless v2, see Requirements for Aurora Serverless v2.

When you use a T instance as a DB instance in an Aurora MySQL DB cluster, we recommend the following:

  • If you use a T instance as a DB instance class in your DB cluster, use the same DB instance class for all instances in your DB cluster. For example, if you use db.t2.medium for your writer instance, then we recommend that you use db.t2.medium for your reader instances also.

  • Don't adjust any memory-related configuration settings, such as innodb_buffer_pool_size. Aurora uses a highly tuned set of default values for memory buffers on T instances. These special defaults are needed for Aurora to run on memory-constrained instances. If you change any memory-related settings on a T instance, you are much more likely to encounter out-of-memory conditions, even if your change is intended to increase buffer sizes.

  • Monitor your CPU Credit Balance (CPUCreditBalance) to ensure that it is at a sustainable level. That is, CPU credits are being accumulated at the same rate as they are being used.

    When you have exhausted the CPU credits for an instance, you see an immediate drop in the available CPU and an increase in the read and write latency for the instance. This situation results in a severe decrease in the overall performance of the instance.

    If your CPU credit balance is not at a sustainable level, then we recommend that you modify your DB instance to use a one of the supported R DB instance classes (scale compute).

    For more information on monitoring metrics, see Viewing metrics in the Amazon RDS console.

  • For your Aurora MySQL DB clusters using single-master replication, monitor the replica lag (AuroraReplicaLag) between the writer instance and the reader instances.

    If a reader instance runs out of CPU credits before the writer instance does, the resulting lag can cause the reader instance to restart frequently. This result is common when an application has a heavy load of read operations distributed among reader instances, at the same time that the writer instance has a minimal load of write operations.

    If you see a sustained increase in replica lag, make sure that your CPU credit balance for the reader instances in your DB cluster is not being exhausted.

    If your CPU credit balance is not at a sustainable level, then we recommend that you modify your DB instance to use one of the supported R DB instance classes (scale compute).

  • Keep the number of inserts per transaction below 1 million for DB clusters that have binary logging enabled.

    If the DB cluster parameter group for your DB cluster has the binlog_format parameter set to a value other than OFF, then your DB cluster might experience out-of-memory conditions if the DB cluster receives transactions that contain over 1 million rows to insert. You can monitor the freeable memory (FreeableMemory) metric to determine if your DB cluster is running out of available memory. You then check the write operations (VolumeWriteIOPS) metric to see if a writer instance is receiving a heavy load of write operations. If this is the case, then we recommend that you update your application to limit the number of inserts in a transaction to less than 1 million. Alternatively, you can modify your instance to use one of the supported R DB instance classes (scale compute).

Optimizing Amazon Aurora indexed join queries with asynchronous key prefetch

Note

The asynchronous key prefetch (AKP) feature is available for Amazon Aurora MySQL version 1.15 and later. For more information about Aurora MySQL versions, see Database engine updates for Amazon Aurora MySQL.

Amazon Aurora can use AKP to improve the performance of queries that join tables across indexes. This feature improves performance by anticipating the rows needed to run queries in which a JOIN query requires use of the Batched Key Access (BKA) Join algorithm and Multi-Range Read (MRR) optimization features. For more information about BKA and MRR, see Block nested-loop and batched key access joins and Multi-range read optimization in the MySQL documentation.

To take advantage of the AKP feature, a query must use both BKA and MRR. Typically, such a query occurs when the JOIN clause of a query uses a secondary index, but also needs some columns from the primary index. For example, you can use AKP when a JOIN clause represents an equijoin on index values between a small outer and large inner table, and the index is highly selective on the larger table. AKP works in concert with BKA and MRR to perform a secondary to primary index lookup during the evaluation of the JOIN clause. AKP identifies the rows required to run the query during the evaluation of the JOIN clause. It then uses a background thread to asynchronously load the pages containing those rows into memory before running the query.

Enabling asynchronous key prefetch

You can enable the AKP feature by setting aurora_use_key_prefetch, a MySQL server variable, to on. By default, this value is set to on. However, AKP cannot be enabled until you also enable the BKA Join algorithm and disable cost-based MRR functionality. To do so, you must set the following values for optimizer_switch, a MySQL server variable:

  • Set batched_key_access to on. This value controls the use of the BKA Join algorithm. By default, this value is set to off.

  • Set mrr_cost_based to off. This value controls the use of cost-based MRR functionality. By default, this value is set to on.

Currently, you can set these values only at the session level. The following example illustrates how to set these values to enable AKP for the current session by executing SET statements.


mysql> set @@session.aurora_use_key_prefetch=on;
mysql> set @@session.optimizer_switch='batched_key_access=on,mrr_cost_based=off';

Similarly, you can use SET statements to disable AKP and the BKA Join algorithm and re-enable cost-based MRR functionality for the current session, as shown in the following example.


mysql> set @@session.aurora_use_key_prefetch=off;
mysql> set @@session.optimizer_switch='batched_key_access=off,mrr_cost_based=on';

For more information about the batched_key_access and mrr_cost_based optimizer switches, see Switchable optimizations in the MySQL documentation.

Optimizing queries for asynchronous key prefetch

You can confirm whether a query can take advantage of the AKP feature. To do so, use the EXPLAIN statement to profile the query before running it. The EXPLAIN statement provides information about the execution plan to use for a specified query.

In the output for the EXPLAIN statement, the Extra column describes additional information included with the execution plan. If the AKP feature applies to a table used in the query, this column includes one of the following values:

  • Using Key Prefetching

  • Using join buffer (Batched Key Access with Key Prefetching)

The following example shows the use of EXPLAIN to view the execution plan for a query that can take advantage of AKP.


mysql> explain select sql_no_cache
    ->     ps_partkey,
    ->     sum(ps_supplycost * ps_availqty) as value
    -> from
    ->     partsupp,
    ->     supplier,
    ->     nation
    -> where
    ->     ps_suppkey = s_suppkey
    ->     and s_nationkey = n_nationkey
    ->     and n_name = 'ETHIOPIA'
    -> group by
    ->     ps_partkey having
    ->         sum(ps_supplycost * ps_availqty) > (
    ->             select
    ->                 sum(ps_supplycost * ps_availqty) * 0.0000003333
    ->             from
    ->                 partsupp,
    ->                 supplier,
    ->                 nation
    ->             where
    ->                 ps_suppkey = s_suppkey
    ->                 and s_nationkey = n_nationkey
    ->                 and n_name = 'ETHIOPIA'
    ->         )
    -> order by
    ->     value desc;
+----+-------------+----------+------+-----------------------+---------------+---------+----------------------------------+------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| id | select_type | table    | type | possible_keys         | key           | key_len | ref                              | rows | filtered | Extra                                                       |
+----+-------------+----------+------+-----------------------+---------------+---------+----------------------------------+------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
|  1 | PRIMARY     | nation   | ALL  | PRIMARY               | NULL          | NULL    | NULL                             |   25 |   100.00 | Using where; Using temporary; Using filesort                |
|  1 | PRIMARY     | supplier | ref  | PRIMARY,i_s_nationkey | i_s_nationkey | 5       | dbt3_scale_10.nation.n_nationkey | 2057 |   100.00 | Using index                                                 |
|  1 | PRIMARY     | partsupp | ref  | i_ps_suppkey          | i_ps_suppkey  | 4       | dbt3_scale_10.supplier.s_suppkey |   42 |   100.00 | Using join buffer (Batched Key Access with Key Prefetching) |
|  2 | SUBQUERY    | nation   | ALL  | PRIMARY               | NULL          | NULL    | NULL                             |   25 |   100.00 | Using where                                                 |
|  2 | SUBQUERY    | supplier | ref  | PRIMARY,i_s_nationkey | i_s_nationkey | 5       | dbt3_scale_10.nation.n_nationkey | 2057 |   100.00 | Using index                                                 |
|  2 | SUBQUERY    | partsupp | ref  | i_ps_suppkey          | i_ps_suppkey  | 4       | dbt3_scale_10.supplier.s_suppkey |   42 |   100.00 | Using join buffer (Batched Key Access with Key Prefetching) |
+----+-------------+----------+------+-----------------------+---------------+---------+----------------------------------+------+----------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
6 rows in set, 1 warning (0.00 sec)

For more information about the EXPLAIN output format, see Extended EXPLAIN output format in the MySQL product documentation.

Note

For MySQL 5.6–compatible and older 5.7–compatible versions, you use the EXPLAIN statement with the EXTENDED keyword. This keyword has been deprecated in MySQL 5.7 and 8.0.

For more information about the extended EXPLAIN output format in MySQL 5.6, see Extended EXPLAIN output format in the MySQL product documentation.

Optimizing large Aurora MySQL join queries with hash joins

When you need to join a large amount of data by using an equijoin, a hash join can improve query performance. You can enable hash joins for Aurora MySQL.

A hash join column can be any complex expression. In a hash join column, you can compare across data types in the following ways:

  • You can compare anything across the category of precise numeric data types, such as int, bigint, numeric, and bit.

  • You can compare anything across the category of approximate numeric data types, such as float and double.

  • You can compare items across string types if the string types have the same character set and collation.

  • You can compare items with date and timestamp data types if the types are the same.

Note

You can't compare data types in different categories.

The following restrictions apply to hash joins for Aurora MySQL:

  • Left-right outer joins aren't supported for Aurora MySQL versions 1 and 2, but are supported for version 3.

  • Semijoins such as subqueries aren't supported, unless the subqueries are materialized first.

  • Multiple-table updates or deletes aren't supported.

    Note

    Single-table updates or deletes are supported.

  • BLOB and spatial data type columns can't be join columns in a hash join.

Enabling hash joins

To enable hash joins, set the MySQL server variable optimizer_switch to hash_join=on (Aurora MySQL version 1 and 2) or block_nested_loop=on (Aurora MySQL version 3). Hash joins are turned on by default in Aurora MySQL version 3. This optimization is turned off by default in Aurora MySQL version 1 and 2. The following example illustrates how to enable hash joins. You can issue the statement select @@optimizer_switch first to see what other settings are present in the SET parameter string. Updating one setting in the optimizer_switch parameter doesn't erase or modify the other settings.


For Aurora MySQL version 1 and 2:
mysql> SET optimizer_switch='hash_join=on';

For Aurora MySQL version 3:
mysql> SET optimizer_switch='block_nested_loop=on';
Note

For Aurora MySQL version 3, hash join support is available in all minor versions and is turned on by default.

For Aurora MySQL version 2, hash join support is available in version 2.06 and higher. In Aurora MySQL version 2, the hash join feature is always controlled by the optimizer_switch value.

Prior to Aurora MySQL version 1.22, the way to enable hash joins in Aurora MySQL version 1 is by enabling the aurora_lab_mode session-level setting. In those Aurora MySQL versions, the optimizer_switch setting for hash joins is enabled by default and you only need to enable aurora_lab_mode.

With this setting, the optimizer chooses to use a hash join based on cost, query characteristics, and resource availability. If the cost estimation is incorrect, you can force the optimizer to choose a hash join. You do so by setting hash_join_cost_based, a MySQL server variable, to off. The following example illustrates how to force the optimizer to choose a hash join.


mysql> SET optimizer_switch='hash_join_cost_based=off';
Note

This setting overrides the decisions of the cost-based optimizer. While the setting can be useful for testing and development, we recommend that you not use it in production.

Optimizing queries for hash joins

To find out whether a query can take advantage of a hash join, use the EXPLAIN statement to profile the query first. The EXPLAIN statement provides information about the execution plan to use for a specified query.

In the output for the EXPLAIN statement, the Extra column describes additional information included with the execution plan. If a hash join applies to the tables used in the query, this column includes values similar to the following:

  • Using where; Using join buffer (Hash Join Outer table table1_name)

  • Using where; Using join buffer (Hash Join Inner table table2_name)

The following example shows the use of EXPLAIN to view the execution plan for a hash join query.


mysql> explain SELECT sql_no_cache * FROM hj_small, hj_big, hj_big2
    ->     WHERE hj_small.col1 = hj_big.col1 and hj_big.col1=hj_big2.col1 ORDER BY 1;
+----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
| id | select_type | table    | type | possible_keys | key  | key_len | ref  | rows | Extra                                                          |
+----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
|  1 | SIMPLE      | hj_small | ALL  | NULL          | NULL | NULL    | NULL |    6 | Using temporary; Using filesort                                |
|  1 | SIMPLE      | hj_big   | ALL  | NULL          | NULL | NULL    | NULL |   10 | Using where; Using join buffer (Hash Join Outer table hj_big)  |
|  1 | SIMPLE      | hj_big2  | ALL  | NULL          | NULL | NULL    | NULL |   15 | Using where; Using join buffer (Hash Join Inner table hj_big2) |
+----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
3 rows in set (0.04 sec)

In the output, the Hash Join Inner table is the table used to build hash table, and the Hash Join Outer table is the table that is used to probe the hash table.

For more information about the extended EXPLAIN output format, see Extended EXPLAIN output format in the MySQL product documentation.

In Aurora MySQL 2.08 and higher, you can use SQL hints to influence whether a query uses hash join or not, and which tables to use for the build and probe sides of the join. For details, see Aurora MySQL hints.

Using Amazon Aurora to scale reads for your MySQL database

You can use Amazon Aurora with your MySQL DB instance to take advantage of the read scaling capabilities of Amazon Aurora and expand the read workload for your MySQL DB instance. To use Aurora to read scale your MySQL DB instance, create an Aurora MySQL DB cluster and make it a read replica of your MySQL DB instance. Then connect to the Aurora MySQL cluster to process the read queries. The source database can be an RDS for MySQL DB instance, or a MySQL database running external to Amazon RDS. For more information, see Using Amazon Aurora to scale reads for your MySQL database.

Best practices for Aurora MySQL high availability

You can apply the following best practices to improve the availability of your Aurora MySQL clusters.

Using Amazon Aurora for Disaster Recovery with your MySQL databases

You can use Amazon Aurora with your MySQL DB instance to create an offsite backup for disaster recovery. To use Aurora for disaster recovery of your MySQL DB instance, create an Amazon Aurora DB cluster and make it a read replica of your MySQL DB instance. This applies to an RDS for MySQL DB instance, or a MySQL database running external to Amazon RDS.

Important

When you set up replication between a MySQL DB instance and an Amazon Aurora MySQL DB cluster, you should monitor the replication to ensure that it remains healthy and repair it if necessary.

For instructions on how to create an Amazon Aurora MySQL DB cluster and make it a read replica of your MySQL DB instance, follow the procedure in Using Amazon Aurora to scale reads for your MySQL database.

For more information on disaster recovery models, see How to choose the best disaster recovery option for your Amazon Aurora MySQL cluster.

Migrating from MySQL to Amazon Aurora MySQL with reduced downtime

When importing data from a MySQL database that supports a live application to an Amazon Aurora MySQL DB cluster, you might want to reduce the time that service is interrupted while you migrate. To do so, you can use the procedure documented in Importing data to a MySQL or MariaDB DB instance with reduced downtime in the Amazon Relational Database Service User Guide. This procedure can especially help if you are working with a very large database. You can use the procedure to reduce the cost of the import by minimizing the amount of data that is passed across the network to AWS.

The procedure lists steps to transfer a copy of your database data to an Amazon EC2 instance and import the data into a new RDS for MySQL DB instance. Because Amazon Aurora is compatible with MySQL, you can instead use an Amazon Aurora DB cluster for the target Amazon RDS MySQL DB instance.

Avoiding slow performance, automatic restart, and failover for Aurora MySQL DB instances

If you're running a heavy workload or workloads that spike beyond the allocated resources of your DB instance, you can exhaust the resources on which you're running your application and Aurora database. To get metrics on your database instance such as CPU utilization, memory usage, and number of database connections used, you can refer to the metrics provided by Amazon CloudWatch, Performance Insights, and Enhanced Monitoring. For more information on monitoring your DB instance, see Monitoring metrics in an Amazon Aurora cluster.

If your workload exhausts the resources you're using, your DB instance might slow down, restart, or even fail over to another DB instance. To avoid this, monitor your resource utilization, examine the workload running on your DB instance, and make optimizations where necessary. If optimizations don't improve the instance metrics and mitigate the resource exhaustion, consider scaling up your DB instance before you reach its limits. For more information on available DB instance classes and their specifications, see Aurora DB instance classes.

Recommendations for MySQL features

The following features are available in Aurora MySQL for MySQL compatibility. However, they have performance, scalability, stability, or compatibility issues in the Aurora environment. Thus, we recommend that you follow certain guidelines in your use of these features. For example, we recommend that you don't use certain features for production Aurora deployments.

Using multithreaded replication in Aurora MySQL version 3

By default, Aurora uses single-threaded replication when an Aurora MySQL DB cluster is used as a read replica for binary log replication.

Although Aurora MySQL doesn't prohibit multithreaded replication, this feature is only supported in Aurora MySQL version 3 and higher.

Aurora MySQL version 1 and 2 inherited several issues regarding multithreaded replication from MySQL. For those versions, we recommend that you don't use multithreaded replication in production.

If you do use multithreaded replication, we recommend that you test any use thoroughly.

For more information about using replication in Amazon Aurora, see Replication with Amazon Aurora. For information about multithreaded replication in Aurora MySQL version 3, see Multithreaded binary log replication (Aurora MySQL version 3 and higher).

Invoking AWS Lambda functions using native MySQL functions

If you are using Amazon Aurora version 1.16 or later, we recommend using the native MySQL functions lambda_sync and lambda_async to invoke Lambda functions.

If you are using the deprecated mysql.lambda_async procedure, we recommend that you wrap calls to the mysql.lambda_async procedure in a stored procedure. You can call this stored procedure from different sources, such as triggers or client code. This approach can help to avoid impedance mismatch issues and make it easier for your database programmers to invoke Lambda functions.

For more information on invoking Lambda functions from Amazon Aurora, see Invoking a Lambda function from an Amazon Aurora MySQL DB cluster.

Avoiding XA transactions with Amazon Aurora MySQL

We recommend that you don't use eXtended Architecture (XA) transactions with Aurora MySQL, because they can cause long recovery times if the XA was in the PREPARED state. If you must use XA transactions with Aurora MySQL, follow these best practices:

  • Don't leave an XA transaction open in the PREPARED state.

  • Keep XA transactions as small as possible.

For more information about using XA transactions with MySQL, see XA transactions in the MySQL documentation.

Keeping foreign keys turned on during DML statements

We strongly recommend that you don't run any data definition language (DDL) statements when the foreign_key_checks variable is set to 0 (off).

If you need to insert or update rows that require a transient violation of foreign keys, follow these steps:

  1. Set foreign_key_checks to 0.

  2. Make your data manipulation language (DML) changes.

  3. Make sure that your completed changes don't violate any foreign key constraints.

  4. Set foreign_key_checks to 1 (on).

In addition, follow these other best practices for foreign key constraints:

  • Make sure that your client applications don't set the foreign_key_checks variable to 0 as a part of the init_connect variable.

  • If a restore from a logical backup such as mysqldump fails or is incomplete, make sure that foreign_key_checks is set to 1 before starting any other operations in the same session. A logical backup sets foreign_key_checks to 0 when it starts.

Configuring how frequently the log buffer is flushed

In MySQL Community Edition, to make transactions durable, the InnoDB log buffer must be flushed to durable storage. You use theinnodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter to configure how frequently the log buffer is flushed to disk.

When you set the innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter to the default value of 1, the log buffer is flushed at each transaction commit. This setting helps to keep the database ACID compliant. We recommend that you keep the default setting of 1.

Changing innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit to a nondefault value, 0 or 2, can help reduce data manipulation language (DML) latency, but sacrifices the durability of the log records. This lack of durability makes the database ACID noncompliant. We recommend that your databases be ACID compliant to avoid the risk of data loss in the event of a server restart. For more information on this parameter, see innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit in the MySQL documentation.

In Aurora MySQL, redo log processing is offloaded to the storage layer, so no flushing to log files occurs on the DB instance. When a write is issued, redo logs are sent from the writer DB instance directly to the Aurora cluster volume. The only writes that cross the network are redo log records. No pages are ever written from the database tier.

By default, in Aurora MySQL, the innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter is set to 1. Each thread committing a transaction waits for confirmation from the Aurora cluster volume. This confirmation indicates that this record and all previous redo log records are written and have achieved quorum. Persisting the log records and achieving quorum make the transaction durable, whether through autocommit or explicit commit. For more information on the Aurora storage architecture, see Amazon Aurora storage demystified.

Aurora MySQL doesn't flush logs to data files as MySQL Community Edition does. However, you can use the innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter to relax durability constraints when writing redo log records to the Aurora cluster volume. When you set innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit to a nondefault value (0 or 2), the database doesn't wait for confirmation that the redo log records are written to the Aurora cluster volume. While these settings can lower DML latency to the client, they can also result in data loss in the event of a failover or restart. Therefore, we recommend that you keep the innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter set to the default value of 1.

While data loss can occur in both MySQL Community Edition and Aurora MySQL, behavior differs in each database because of their different architectures. These architectural differences can lead to varying degrees of data loss. To make sure that your database is ACID compliant, always set innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit to 1.

Note

You can't configure the innodb_flush_log_at_trx_commit parameter in Aurora MySQL version 3. Aurora MySQL version 3 always uses the default setting of 1, which is ACID compliant.