Common DBA Tasks for PostgreSQL

This section describes the Amazon RDS implementations of some common DBA tasks for DB instances running the PostgreSQL database engine. To deliver a managed service experience, Amazon RDS doesn't provide shell access to DB instances, and it restricts access to certain system procedures and tables that require advanced privileges.

For information about working with PostgreSQL log files on Amazon RDS, see PostgreSQL Database Log Files.

Creating Roles

When you create a DB instance, the master user system account that you create is assigned to the rds_superuser role. The rds_superuser role is a predefined Amazon RDS role similar to the PostgreSQL superuser role (customarily named postgres in local instances), but with some restrictions. As with the PostgreSQL superuser role, the rds_superuser role has the most privileges for your DB instance. You should not assign this role to users unless they need the most access to the DB instance.

The rds_superuser role can do the following:

• Add extensions that are available for use with Amazon RDS. For more information, see Supported PostgreSQL Features and the PostgreSQL documentation.

• Manage tablespaces, including creating and deleting them. For more information, see the Tablespaces section in the PostgreSQL documentation.

• View all users not assigned the rds_superuser role using the pg_stat_activity command and kill their connections using the pg_terminate_backend and pg_cancel_backend commands.

• Grant and revoke the rds_replication role for all roles that are not the rds_superuser role. For more information, see the GRANT section in the PostgreSQL documentation.

The following example shows how to create a user and then grant the user the rds_superuser role. User-defined roles, such as rds_superuser, have to be granted.

create role testuser with password 'testuser' login;   
CREATE ROLE   
grant rds_superuser to testuser;   
GRANT ROLE   

Managing PostgreSQL Database Access

In Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL, you can manage which users have privileges to connect to which databases. In other PostgreSQL environments, you sometimes perform this kind of management by modifying the pg_hba.conf file. In Amazon RDS, you can use database grants instead.

New databases in PostgreSQL are always created with a default set of privileges. The default privileges allow PUBLIC (all users) to connect to the database and to create temporary tables while connected.

To control which users are allowed to connect to a given database in Amazon RDS, first revoke the default PUBLIC privileges. Then grant back the privileges on a more granular basis. The following example code shows how.

psql> revoke all on database <database-name> from public;
psql> grant connect, temporary on database <database-name> to <user/role name>;    

For more information about privileges in PostgreSQL databases, see the GRANT command in the PostgreSQL documentation.

Working with PostgreSQL Parameters

PostgreSQL parameters that you set for a local PostgreSQL instance in the postgresql.conf file are maintained in the DB parameter group for your DB instance. If you create a DB instance using the default parameter group, the parameter settings are in the parameter group called default.postgres9.6.

When you create a DB instance, the parameters in the associated DB parameter group are loaded. You can modify parameter values by changing values in the parameter group. You can also change parameter values, if you have the security privileges to do so, by using the ALTER DATABASE, ALTER ROLE, and SET commands. You can't use the command line postgres command or the env PGOPTIONS command, because you have no access to the host.

Keeping track of PostgreSQL parameter settings can occasionally be difficult. Use the following command to list current parameter settings and the default value.

select name, setting, boot_val, reset_val, unit
from pg_settings
order by name;  

For an explanation of the output values, see the pg_settings topic in the PostgreSQL documentation.

If you set the memory settings too large for max_connections or shared_buffers, you will prevent the PostgreSQL instance from starting up. Some parameters use units that you might not be familiar with; for example, shared_buffers sets the number of 8-KB shared memory buffers used by the server.

The following error is written to the postgres.log file when the instance is attempting to start up, but incorrect parameter settings are preventing it from starting.

2013-09-18 21:13:15 UTC::@:[8097]:FATAL:  could not map anonymous shared
memory: Cannot allocate memory
2013-09-18 21:13:15 UTC::@:[8097]:HINT:  This error usually means that 
PostgreSQL's request for a shared memory segment exceeded available memory or 
swap space. To reduce the request size (currently 3514134274048 bytes), reduce 
PostgreSQL's shared memory usage, perhaps by reducing shared_buffers or 
max_connections.  

There are two types of PostgreSQL parameters, static and dynamic. Static parameters require that the DB instance be rebooted before they are applied. Dynamic parameters can be applied immediately. The following table shows parameters that you can modify for a PostgreSQL DB instance and each parameter's type.

Parameter Name	Apply_Type	Description
application_name	Dynamic	Sets the application name to be reported in statistics and logs.
array_nulls	Dynamic	Enables input of NULL elements in arrays.
authentication_timeout	Dynamic	Sets the maximum allowed time to complete client authentication.
autovacuum	Dynamic	Starts the autovacuum subprocess.
autovacuum_analyze_scale_factor	Dynamic	Number of tuple inserts, updates, or deletes before analyze as a fraction of reltuples.
autovacuum_analyze_threshold	Dynamic	Minimum number of tuple inserts, updates, or deletes before analyze.
autovacuum_naptime	Dynamic	Time to sleep between autovacuum runs.
autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay	Dynamic	Vacuum cost delay, in milliseconds, for autovacuum.
autovacuum_vacuum_cost_limit	Dynamic	Vacuum cost amount available before napping, for autovacuum.
autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor	Dynamic	Number of tuple updates or deletes before vacuum as a fraction of reltuples.
autovacuum_vacuum_threshold	Dynamic	Minimum number of tuple updates or deletes before vacuum.
backslash_quote	Dynamic	Sets whether a backslash (\) is allowed in string literals.
bgwriter_delay	Dynamic	Background writer sleep time between rounds.
bgwriter_lru_maxpages	Dynamic	Background writer maximum number of LRU pages to flush per round.
bgwriter_lru_multiplier	Dynamic	Multiple of the average buffer usage to free per round.
bytea_output	Dynamic	Sets the output format for bytes.
check_function_bodies	Dynamic	Checks function bodies during CREATE FUNCTION.
checkpoint_completion_target	Dynamic	Time spent flushing dirty buffers during checkpoint, as a fraction of the checkpoint interval.
checkpoint_segments	Dynamic	Sets the maximum distance in log segments between automatic write-ahead log (WAL) checkpoints.
checkpoint_timeout	Dynamic	Sets the maximum time between automatic WAL checkpoints.
checkpoint_warning	Dynamic	Enables warnings if checkpoint segments are filled more frequently than this.
client_encoding	Dynamic	Sets the client's character set encoding.
client_min_messages	Dynamic	Sets the message levels that are sent to the client.
commit_delay	Dynamic	Sets the delay in microseconds between transaction commit and flushing WAL to disk.
commit_siblings	Dynamic	Sets the minimum concurrent open transactions before performing commit_delay.
constraint_exclusion	Dynamic	Enables the planner to use constraints to optimize queries.
cpu_index_tuple_cost	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of processing each index entry during an index scan.
cpu_operator_cost	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of processing each operator or function call.
cpu_tuple_cost	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of processing each tuple (row).
cursor_tuple_fraction	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the fraction of a cursor's rows that will be retrieved.
datestyle	Dynamic	Sets the display format for date and time values.
deadlock_timeout	Dynamic	Sets the time to wait on a lock before checking for deadlock.
debug_pretty_print	Dynamic	Indents parse and plan tree displays.
debug_print_parse	Dynamic	Logs each query's parse tree.
debug_print_plan	Dynamic	Logs each query's execution plan.
debug_print_rewritten	Dynamic	Logs each query's rewritten parse tree.
default_statistics_target	Dynamic	Sets the default statistics target.
default_tablespace	Dynamic	Sets the default tablespace to create tables and indexes in.
default_transaction_deferrable	Dynamic	Sets the default deferrable status of new transactions.
default_transaction_isolation	Dynamic	Sets the transaction isolation level of each new transaction.
default_transaction_read_only	Dynamic	Sets the default read-only status of new transactions.
default_with_oids	Dynamic	Creates new tables with OIDs by default.
effective_cache_size	Dynamic	Sets the planner's assumption about the size of the disk cache.
effective_io_concurrency	Dynamic	Number of simultaneous requests that can be handled efficiently by the disk subsystem.
enable_bitmapscan	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of bitmap-scan plans.
enable_hashagg	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of hashed aggregation plans.
enable_hashjoin	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of hash join plans.
enable_indexscan	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of index-scan plans.
enable_material	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of materialization.
enable_mergejoin	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of merge join plans.
enable_nestloop	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of nested-loop join plans.
enable_seqscan	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of sequential-scan plans.
enable_sort	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of explicit sort steps.
enable_tidscan	Dynamic	Enables the planner's use of TID scan plans.
escape_string_warning	Dynamic	Warns about backslash (\) escapes in ordinary string literals.
extra_float_digits	Dynamic	Sets the number of digits displayed for floating-point values.
from_collapse_limit	Dynamic	Sets the FROM-list size beyond which subqueries are not collapsed.
fsync	Dynamic	Forces synchronization of updates to disk.
full_page_writes	Dynamic	Writes full pages to WAL when first modified after a checkpoint.
geqo	Dynamic	Enables genetic query optimization.
geqo_effort	Dynamic	GEQO: effort is used to set the default for other GEQO parameters.
geqo_generations	Dynamic	GEQO: number of iterations of the algorithm.
geqo_pool_size	Dynamic	GEQO: number of individuals in the population.
geqo_seed	Dynamic	GEQO: seed for random path selection.
geqo_selection_bias	Dynamic	GEQO: selective pressure within the population.
geqo_threshold	Dynamic	Sets the threshold of FROM items beyond which GEQO is used.
gin_fuzzy_search_limit	Dynamic	Sets the maximum allowed result for exact search by GIN.
hot_standby_feedback	Dynamic	Determines whether a hot standby sends feedback messages to the primary or upstream standby.
intervalstyle	Dynamic	Sets the display format for interval values.
join_collapse_limit	Dynamic	Sets the FROM-list size beyond which JOIN constructs are not flattened.
lc_messages	Dynamic	Sets the language in which messages are displayed.
lc_monetary	Dynamic	Sets the locale for formatting monetary amounts.
lc_numeric	Dynamic	Sets the locale for formatting numbers.
lc_time	Dynamic	Sets the locale for formatting date and time values.
log_autovacuum_min_duration	Dynamic	Sets the minimum execution time above which autovacuum actions will be logged.
log_checkpoints	Dynamic	Logs each checkpoint.
log_connections	Dynamic	Logs each successful connection.
log_disconnections	Dynamic	Logs end of a session, including duration.
log_duration	Dynamic	Logs the duration of each completed SQL statement.
log_error_verbosity	Dynamic	Sets the verbosity of logged messages.
log_executor_stats	Dynamic	Writes executor performance statistics to the server log.
log_filename	Dynamic	Sets the file name pattern for log files.
log_hostname	Dynamic	Logs the host name in the connection logs.
log_lock_waits	Dynamic	Logs long lock waits.
log_min_duration_statement	Dynamic	Sets the minimum execution time above which statements will be logged.
log_min_error_statement	Dynamic	Causes all statements generating an error at or above this level to be logged.
log_min_messages	Dynamic	Sets the message levels that are logged.
log_parser_stats	Dynamic	Writes parser performance statistics to the server log.
log_planner_stats	Dynamic	Writes planner performance statistics to the server log.
log_rotation_age	Dynamic	Automatic log file rotation will occur after N minutes.
log_rotation_size	Dynamic	Automatic log file rotation will occur after N kilobytes.
log_statement	Dynamic	Sets the type of statements logged.
log_statement_stats	Dynamic	Writes cumulative performance statistics to the server log.
log_temp_files	Dynamic	Logs the use of temporary files larger than this number of kilobytes.
maintenance_work_mem	Dynamic	Sets the maximum memory to be used for maintenance operations.
max_stack_depth	Dynamic	Sets the maximum stack depth, in kilobytes.
max_standby_archive_delay	Dynamic	Sets the maximum delay before canceling queries when a hot standby server is processing archived WAL data.
max_standby_streaming_delay	Dynamic	Sets the maximum delay before canceling queries when a hot standby server is processing streamed WAL data.
max_wal_size	Static	Sets the WAL size that triggers the checkpoint. For PostgreSQL version 9.6 and earlier, max_wal_size is in units of 16 MB. For PostgreSQL version 10 and later, max_wal_size is in units of 1 MB.
min_wal_size	Static	Sets the minimum size to shrink the WAL to. For PostgreSQL version 9.6 and earlier, min_wal_size is in units of 16 MB. For PostgreSQL version 10 and later, min_wal_size is in units of 1 MB.
quote_all_identifiers	Dynamic	Adds quotes (") to all identifiers when generating SQL fragments.
random_page_cost	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of a non-sequentially fetched disk page.
rds.adaptive_autovacuum	Dynamic	Automatically tunes the autovacuum parameters whenever the transaction ID thresholds are exceeded.
rds.log_retention_period	Dynamic	Sets log retention such that Amazon RDS deletes PostgreSQL logs that are older than N minutes.
rds.restrict_password_commands	Static	Restricts who can manage passwords to users with the rds_password role. Set this parameter to 1 to enable password restriction. The default is 0.
search_path	Dynamic	Sets the schema search order for names that are not schema-qualified.
seq_page_cost	Dynamic	Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of a sequentially fetched disk page.
session_replication_role	Dynamic	Sets the sessions behavior for triggers and rewrite rules.
sql_inheritance	Dynamic	Causes subtables to be included by default in various commands.
ssl_renegotiation_limit	Dynamic	Sets the amount of traffic to send and receive before renegotiating the encryption keys.
standard_conforming_strings	Dynamic	Causes ... strings to treat backslashes literally.
statement_timeout	Dynamic	Sets the maximum allowed duration of any statement.
synchronize_seqscans	Dynamic	Enables synchronized sequential scans.
synchronous_commit	Dynamic	Sets the current transactions synchronization level.
tcp_keepalives_count	Dynamic	Maximum number of TCP keepalive retransmits.
tcp_keepalives_idle	Dynamic	Time between issuing TCP keepalives.
tcp_keepalives_interval	Dynamic	Time between TCP keepalive retransmits.
temp_buffers	Dynamic	Sets the maximum number of temporary buffers used by each session.
temp_tablespaces	Dynamic	Sets the tablespaces to use for temporary tables and sort files.
timezone	Dynamic	Sets the time zone for displaying and interpreting time stamps.
track_activities	Dynamic	Collects information about executing commands.
track_counts	Dynamic	Collects statistics on database activity.
track_functions	Dynamic	Collects function-level statistics on database activity.
track_io_timing	Dynamic	Collects timing statistics on database I/O activity.
transaction_deferrable	Dynamic	Indicates whether to defer a read-only serializable transaction until it can be executed with no possible serialization failures.
transaction_isolation	Dynamic	Sets the current transactions isolation level.
transaction_read_only	Dynamic	Sets the current transactions read-only status.
transform_null_equals	Dynamic	Treats expr=NULL as expr IS NULL.
update_process_title	Dynamic	Updates the process title to show the active SQL command.
vacuum_cost_delay	Dynamic	Vacuum cost delay in milliseconds.
vacuum_cost_limit	Dynamic	Vacuum cost amount available before napping.
vacuum_cost_page_dirty	Dynamic	Vacuum cost for a page dirtied by vacuum.
vacuum_cost_page_hit	Dynamic	Vacuum cost for a page found in the buffer cache.
vacuum_cost_page_miss	Dynamic	Vacuum cost for a page not found in the buffer cache.
vacuum_defer_cleanup_age	Dynamic	Number of transactions by which vacuum and hot cleanup should be deferred, if any.
vacuum_freeze_min_age	Dynamic	Minimum age at which vacuum should freeze a table row.
vacuum_freeze_table_age	Dynamic	Age at which vacuum should scan a whole table to freeze tuples.
wal_writer_delay	Dynamic	WAL writer sleep time between WAL flushes.
work_mem	Dynamic	Sets the maximum memory to be used for query workspaces.
xmlbinary	Dynamic	Sets how binary values are to be encoded in XML.
xmloption	Dynamic	Sets whether XML data in implicit parsing and serialization operations is to be considered as documents or content fragments.
autovacuum_freeze_max_age	Static	Age at which to autovacuum a table to prevent transaction ID wraparound.
autovacuum_max_workers	Static	Sets the maximum number of simultaneously running autovacuum worker processes.
max_connections	Static	Sets the maximum number of concurrent connections.
max_files_per_process	Static	Sets the maximum number of simultaneously open files for each server process.
max_locks_per_transaction	Static	Sets the maximum number of locks per transaction.
max_pred_locks_per_transaction	Static	Sets the maximum number of predicate locks per transaction.
max_prepared_transactions	Static	Sets the maximum number of simultaneously prepared transactions.
shared_buffers	Static	Sets the number of shared memory buffers used by the server.
ssl	Static	Enables SSL connections.
temp_file_limit	Static	Sets the maximum size in KB to which the temporary files can grow.
track_activity_query_size	Static	Sets the size reserved for pg_stat_activity.current_query, in bytes.
wal_buffers	Static	Sets the number of disk-page buffers in shared memory for WAL.

Amazon RDS uses the default PostgreSQL units for all parameters. The following table shows the PostgreSQL default unit and value for each parameter.

Parameter Name	Unit
effective_cache_size	8 KB
segment_size	8 KB
shared_buffers	8 KB
temp_buffers	8 KB
wal_buffers	8 KB
wal_segment_size	8 KB
log_rotation_size	KB
log_temp_files	KB
maintenance_work_mem	KB
max_stack_depth	KB
ssl_renegotiation_limit	KB
temp_file_limit	KB
work_mem	KB
log_rotation_age	minutes
autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay	ms
bgwriter_delay	ms
deadlock_timeout	ms
lock_timeout	ms
log_autovacuum_min_duration	ms
log_min_duration_statement	ms
max_standby_archive_delay	ms
max_standby_streaming_delay	ms
statement_timeout	ms
vacuum_cost_delay	ms
wal_receiver_timeout	ms
wal_sender_timeout	ms
wal_writer_delay	ms
archive_timeout	s
authentication_timeout	s
autovacuum_naptime	s
checkpoint_timeout	s
checkpoint_warning	s
post_auth_delay	s
pre_auth_delay	s
tcp_keepalives_idle	s
tcp_keepalives_interval	s
wal_receiver_status_interval	s

Working with PostgreSQL Autovacuum on Amazon RDS

We strongly recommend that you use the autovacuum feature for PostgreSQL databases to maintain the health of your PostgreSQL DB instance. Autovacuum automates the execution of the VACUUM and the ANALYZE commands. Autovacuum checks for tables that have had a large number of inserted, updated, or deleted tuples. Autovacuum then reclaims storage by removing obsolete data or tuples from the PostgreSQL database.

Autovacuum is enabled by default for all new Amazon RDS PostgreSQL DB instances, and the related autovacuum configuration parameters are appropriately set by default. Because our defaults are somewhat generic, you can benefit from tuning parameters to your specific workload. The following section can help you perform the needed autovacuum tuning.

Topics

• Allocating Memory for Autovacuum
• Reducing the Likelihood of Transaction ID Wraparound
• Determining if the Tables in Your Database Need Vacuuming
• Determining Which Tables Are Currently Eligible for Autovacuum
• Determining if Autovacuum Is Currently Running and For How Long
• Performing a Manual Vacuum Freeze
• Reindexing a Table When Autovacuum Is Running
• Other Parameters That Affect Autovacuum
• Setting Table-Level Autovacuum Parameters
• Autovacuum Logging

Allocating Memory for Autovacuum

One of the most important parameters influencing autovacuum performance is the maintenance_work_mem parameter. This parameter determines how much memory that you allocate for autovacuum to use to scan a database table and to hold all the row IDs that are going to be vacuumed. If you set the value of the maintenance_work_mem parameter too low, the vacuum process might have to scan the table multiple times to complete its work. Such multiple scans can have a negative impact on performance.

When doing calculations to determine the maintenance_work_mem parameter value, keep in mind two things:

• The default unit is kilobytes (KB) for this parameter.

• The maintenance_work_mem parameter works in conjunction with the autovacuum_max_workers parameter. If you have many small tables, allocate more autovacuum_max_workers and less maintenance_work_mem. If you have large tables (say, larger than 100 GB), allocate more memory and fewer worker processes. You need to have enough memory allocated to succeed on your biggest table. Each autovacuum_max_workers can use the memory you allocate. Thus, you should make sure the combination of worker processes and memory equal the total memory that you want to allocate.

In general terms, for large hosts set the maintenance_work_mem parameter to a value between one and two gigabytes (between 1,048,576 and 2,097,152 KB). For extremely large hosts, set the parameter to a value between two and four gigabytes (between 2,097,152 and 4,194,304 KB). The value you set for this parameter should depend on the workload. Amazon RDS has updated its default for this parameter to be kilobytes calculated as follows:

GREATEST({DBInstanceClassMemory/63963136*1024},65536).

Reducing the Likelihood of Transaction ID Wraparound

In some cases, parameter group settings related to autovacuum might not be aggressive enough to prevent transaction ID wraparound. To address this, Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL provides a mechanism that adapts the autovacuum parameter values automatically. Adaptive autovacuum parameter tuning is a feature for RDS for PostgreSQL. A detailed explanation of TransactionID wraparound is found in the PostgreSQL documentation.

Adaptive autovacuum parameter tuning is enabled by default for RDS PostgreSQL instances with the dynamic parameter rds.adaptive_autovacuum set to ON. We strongly recommend that you keep this enabled. However, to turn off adaptive autovacuum parameter tuning, set the rds.adaptive_autovacuum parameter to 0 or OFF.

Transaction ID wraparound is still possible even when RDS tunes the autovacuum parameters. We encourage you to implement an Amazon CloudWatch alarm for transaction ID wraparound. For more information, see the blog post Implement an Early Warning System for Transaction ID Wraparound in Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL.

With adaptive autovacuum parameter tuning enabled, RDS will begin adjusting autovacuum parameters when the CloudWatch metric MaximumUsedTransactionIDs reaches the value of the autovacuum_freeze_max_age parameter or 500,000,000, whichever is greater.

RDS continues to adjust parameters for autovacuum if a table continues to trend toward transaction ID wraparound. Each of these adjustments dedicates more resources to autovacuum to avoid wraparound. RDS updates the following autovacuum-related parameters:

• autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay

• autovacuum_vacuum_cost_limit

• autovacuum_work_mem

• autovacuum_naptime

RDS modifies these parameters only if the new value makes autovacuum more aggressive. The parameters are modified in memory on the DB instance. The values in the parameter group aren't changed. To view the current in-memory settings, use the PostgreSQL SHOW SQL command.

Whenever RDS modifies any of these autovacuum parameters, it generates an event for the affected DB instance that is visible on the AWS Management Console (https://console.aws.amazon.com/rds/) and through the RDS API. After the MaximumUsedTransactionIDs CloudWatch metric returns below the threshold, RDS resets the autovacuum related parameters in memory back to the values specified in the parameter group and generates another event corresponding to this change.

Determining if the Tables in Your Database Need Vacuuming

You can use the following query to show the number of unvacuumed transactions in a database. The datfrozenxid column of a database's pg_database row is a lower bound on the normal transaction IDs appearing in that database. This column is the minimum of the per-table relfrozenxid values within the database.

SELECT datname, age(datfrozenxid) FROM pg_database ORDER BY age(datfrozenxid) desc limit 20;

For example, the results of running the preceding query might be the following.

datname    | age
mydb       | 1771757888
template0  | 1721757888
template1  | 1721757888
rdsadmin   | 1694008527
postgres   | 1693881061
(5 rows)  

When the age of a database reaches 2 billion transaction IDs, transaction ID (XID) wraparound occurs and the database becomes read-only. This query can be used to produce a metric and run a few times a day. By default, autovacuum is set to keep the age of transactions to no more than 200,000,000 (autovacuum_freeze_max_age).

A sample monitoring strategy might look like this:

• Set the autovacuum_freeze_max_age value to 200 million transactions.

• If a table reaches 500 million unvacuumed transactions, that triggers a low-severity alarm. This isn't an unreasonable value, but it can indicate that autovacuum isn't keeping up.

• If a table ages to 1 billion, this should be treated as an alarm to take action on. In general, you want to keep ages closer to autovacuum_freeze_max_age for performance reasons. We recommend you investigate using the recommendations that follow.

• If a table reaches 1.5 billion unvacuumed transactions, that triggers a high-severity alarm. Depending on how quickly your database uses transaction IDs, this alarm can indicate that the system is running out of time to run autovacuum. In this case, we recommend you resolve this immediately.

If a table is constantly breaching these thresholds, you need to modify your autovacuum parameters further. By default, using VACUUM manually (which has cost-based delays disabled) is more aggressive than using the default autovacuum, but it is also more intrusive to the system as a whole.

We recommend the following:

• Be aware and enable a monitoring mechanism so that you are aware of the age of your oldest transactions.

  For information on creating a process that warns you about transaction ID wraparound, see the AWS Database Blog post Implement an Early Warning System for Transaction ID Wraparound in Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL.

• For busier tables, perform a manual vacuum freeze regularly during a maintenance window, in addition to relying on autovacuum. For information on performing a manual vacuum freeze, see Performing a Manual Vacuum Freeze.

Determining Which Tables Are Currently Eligible for Autovacuum

Often, it is one or two tables in need of vacuuming. Tables whose relfrozenxid value is greater than the number of transactions in autovacuum_freeze_max_age are always targeted by autovacuum. Otherwise, if the number of tuples made obsolete since the last VACUUM exceeds the "vacuum threshold", the table is vacuumed.

The autovacuum threshold is defined as:

Vacuum-threshold = vacuum-base-threshold + vacuum-scale-factor * number-of-tuples

While you are connected to your database, run the following query to see a list of tables that autovacuum sees as eligible for vacuuming:

  WITH vbt AS (SELECT setting AS autovacuum_vacuum_threshold FROM 
pg_settings WHERE name = 'autovacuum_vacuum_threshold')
    , vsf AS (SELECT setting AS autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor FROM 
pg_settings WHERE name = 'autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor')
    , fma AS (SELECT setting AS autovacuum_freeze_max_age FROM 
pg_settings WHERE name = 'autovacuum_freeze_max_age')
    , sto AS (select opt_oid, split_part(setting, '=', 1) as param, 
split_part(setting, '=', 2) as value from (select oid opt_oid, 
unnest(reloptions) setting from pg_class) opt)
SELECT
    '"'||ns.nspname||'"."'||c.relname||'"' as relation
    , pg_size_pretty(pg_table_size(c.oid)) as table_size
    , age(relfrozenxid) as xid_age
    , coalesce(cfma.value::float, autovacuum_freeze_max_age::float) 
autovacuum_freeze_max_age
    , (coalesce(cvbt.value::float, autovacuum_vacuum_threshold::float) 
+ coalesce(cvsf.value::float,autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor::float) * 
c.reltuples) as autovacuum_vacuum_tuples
    , n_dead_tup as dead_tuples
FROM pg_class c join pg_namespace ns on ns.oid = c.relnamespace
join pg_stat_all_tables stat on stat.relid = c.oid
join vbt on (1=1) join vsf on (1=1) join fma on (1=1)
left join sto cvbt on cvbt.param = 'autovacuum_vacuum_threshold' and 
c.oid = cvbt.opt_oid
left join sto cvsf on cvsf.param = 'autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor' and 
c.oid = cvsf.opt_oid
left join sto cfma on cfma.param = 'autovacuum_freeze_max_age' and 
c.oid = cfma.opt_oid
WHERE c.relkind = 'r' and nspname <> 'pg_catalog'
and (
    age(relfrozenxid) >= coalesce(cfma.value::float, 
autovacuum_freeze_max_age::float)
    or
    coalesce(cvbt.value::float, autovacuum_vacuum_threshold::float) + 
coalesce(cvsf.value::float,autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor::float) * 
c.reltuples <= n_dead_tup
   -- or 1 = 1
)
ORDER BY age(relfrozenxid) DESC LIMIT 50;

Determining if Autovacuum Is Currently Running and For How Long

If you need to manually vacuum a table, you need to determine if autovacuum is currently running. If it is, you might need to adjust parameters to make it run more efficiently, or terminate autovacuum so you can manually run VACUUM.

Use the following query to determine if autovacuum is running, how long it has been running, and if it is waiting on another session.

If you are using Amazon RDS PostgreSQL 9.6+ or higher, use this query:

SELECT datname, usename, pid, state, wait_event, current_timestamp - xact_start AS xact_runtime, query
FROM pg_stat_activity 
WHERE upper(query) LIKE '%VACUUM%' 
ORDER BY xact_start;

After running the query, you should see output similar to the following.

 datname | usename  |  pid  | state  | wait_event |      xact_runtime       | query  
 --------+----------+-------+--------+------------+-------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 16473 | active |            | 33 days 16:32:11.600656 | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable1 (to prevent wraparound)
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 22553 | active |            | 14 days 09:15:34.073141 | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable2 (to prevent wraparound)
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 41909 | active |            | 3 days 02:43:54.203349  | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable3
 mydb    | rdsadmin |   618 | active |            | 00:00:00                | SELECT datname, usename, pid, state, wait_event, current_timestamp - xact_start AS xact_runtime, query+
         |          |       |        |            |                         | FROM pg_stat_activity                                                                                 +
         |          |       |        |            |                         | WHERE query like '%VACUUM%'                                                                           +
         |          |       |        |            |                         | ORDER BY xact_start;                                                                                  +

If you are using an Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL version less than 9.6, use the following query.

SELECT datname, usename, pid, waiting, current_timestamp - xact_start AS xact_runtime, query
FROM pg_stat_activity 
WHERE upper(query) LIKE '%VACUUM%' 
ORDER BY xact_start;

After running the query, you should see output similar to the following.

 datname | usename  |  pid  | waiting |       xact_runtime      | query  
 --------+----------+-------+---------+-------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 16473 | f       | 33 days 16:32:11.600656 | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable1 (to prevent wraparound)
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 22553 | f       | 14 days 09:15:34.073141 | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable2 (to prevent wraparound)
 mydb    | rdsadmin | 41909 | f       | 3 days 02:43:54.203349  | autovacuum: VACUUM ANALYZE public.mytable3
 mydb    | rdsadmin |   618 | f       | 00:00:00                | SELECT datname, usename, pid, waiting, current_timestamp - xact_start AS xact_runtime, query+
         |          |       |         |                         | FROM pg_stat_activity                                                                       +                 
         |          |       |         |                         | WHERE query like '%VACUUM%'                                                                 +
         |          |       |         |                         | ORDER BY xact_start;                                                                        +

Several issues can cause a long-running autovacuum session (that is, multiple days long). The most common issue is that your maintenance_work_mem parameter value is set too low for the size of the table or rate of updates.

We recommend that you use the following formula to set the maintenance_work_mem parameter value.

GREATEST({DBInstanceClassMemory/63963136*1024},65536)

Short running autovacuum sessions can also indicate problems:

• It can indicate that there aren't enough autovacuum_max_workers for your workload. In this case, you need to indicate the number of workers.

• It can indicate that there is an index corruption (autovacuum crashes and restart on the same relation but make no progress). In this case, run a manual vacuum freeze verbose ___table___ to see the exact cause.

Performing a Manual Vacuum Freeze

You might want to perform a manual vacuum on a table that has a vacuum process already running. This is useful if you have identified a table with an age approaching 2 billion transactions (or above any threshold you are monitoring).

The following steps are a guideline, and there are several variations to the process. For example, during testing, suppose that you find that the maintenance_work_mem parameter value was set too small and that you need to take immediate action on a table. However, perhaps you don't want to bounce the instance at the moment. Using the queries in previous sections, you determine which table is the problem and notice a long running autovacuum session. You know that you need to change the maintenance_work_mem parameter setting, but you also need to take immediate action and vacuum the table in question. The following procedure shows what to do in this situation:

To manually perform a vacuum freeze

1. Open two sessions to the database containing the table you want to vacuum. For the second session, use "screen" or another utility that maintains the session if your connection is dropped.

2. In session one, get the PID of the autovacuum session running on the table.

   Run the following query to get the PID of the autovacuum session.

   SELECT datname, usename, pid, current_timestamp - xact_start 
   AS xact_runtime, query
   FROM pg_stat_activity WHERE upper(query) LIKE '%VACUUM%' ORDER BY 
   xact_start; 

3. In session two, calculate the amount of memory you need for this operation. In this example, we determine that we can afford to use up to 2 GB of memory for this operation, so we set maintenance_work_mem for the current session to 2 GB.

   set maintenance_work_mem='2 GB';
   SET 

4. In session two, issue a vacuum freeze verbose command for the table. The verbose setting is useful because, although there is no progress report for this in PostgreSQL currently, you can see activity.

   \timing on
   Timing is on.
   vacuum freeze verbose pgbench_branches;

   
   INFO:  vacuuming "public.pgbench_branches"
   INFO:  index "pgbench_branches_pkey" now contains 50 row versions in 2 pages
   DETAIL:  0 index row versions were removed.
   0 index pages have been deleted, 0 are currently reusable.
   CPU 0.00s/0.00u sec elapsed 0.00 sec.
   INFO:  index "pgbench_branches_test_index" now contains 50 row versions in 2 pages
   DETAIL:  0 index row versions were removed.
   0 index pages have been deleted, 0 are currently reusable.
   CPU 0.00s/0.00u sec elapsed 0.00 sec.
   INFO:  "pgbench_branches": found 0 removable, 50 nonremovable row versions 
        in 43 out of 43 pages
   DETAIL:  0 dead row versions cannot be removed yet.
   There were 9347 unused item pointers.
   0 pages are entirely empty.
   CPU 0.00s/0.00u sec elapsed 0.00 sec.
   VACUUM
   Time: 2.765 ms
   

5. In session one, if autovacuum was blocking, you see in pg_stat_activity that waiting is "T" for your vacuum session. In this case, you need to terminate the autovacuum process as follows.

   SELECT pg_terminate_backend('the_pid'); 

6. At this point, your session begins. It's important to note that autovacuum restarts immediately because this table is probably the highest on its list of work. Initiate your vacuum freeze verbose command in session 2 and then terminate the autovacuum process in session 1.

Reindexing a Table When Autovacuum Is Running

If an index has become corrupt, autovacuum continues to process the table and fails. If you attempt a manual vacuum in this situation, you will receive an error message similar to the following:

mydb=# vacuum freeze pgbench_branches;
ERROR: index "pgbench_branches_test_index" contains unexpected 
   zero page at block 30521
HINT: Please REINDEX it. 

When the index is corrupted and autovacuum is attempting to run against the table, you contend with an already running autovacuum session. When you issue a "REINDEX " command, you take out an exclusive lock on the table. Write operations are blocked, and also reads that use that specific index.

To reindex a table when autovacuum is running on the table

1. Open two sessions to the database containing the table you want to vacuum. For the second session, use "screen" or another utility that maintains the session if your connection is dropped.

2. In session one, get the PID of the autovacuum session running on the table.

   Run the following query to get the PID of the autovacuum session.

   SELECT datname, usename, pid, current_timestamp - xact_start 
   AS xact_runtime, query
   FROM pg_stat_activity WHERE upper(query) like '%VACUUM%' ORDER BY 
   xact_start; 

3. In session two, issue the reindex command.

   \timing on
   Timing is on.
   reindex index pgbench_branches_test_index;
   REINDEX
   Time: 9.966 ms
   

4. In session one, if autovacuum was blocking, you see in pg_stat_activity that waiting is "T" for your vacuum session. In this case, you will need to terminate the autovacuum process.

   select pg_terminate_backend('the_pid');

5. At this point, your session begins. It's important to note that autovacuum restarts immediately because this table is probably the highest on its list of work. Initiate your command in session 2 and then terminate the autovacuum process in session 1.

Other Parameters That Affect Autovacuum

The following query shows the values of some of the parameters that directly affect autovacuum and its behavior. The autovacuum parameters are described fully in the PostgreSQL documentation.

SELECT name, setting, unit, short_desc
FROM pg_settings
WHERE name IN (
'autovacuum_max_workers',
'autovacuum_analyze_scale_factor',
'autovacuum_naptime',
'autovacuum_analyze_threshold',
'autovacuum_analyze_scale_factor',
'autovacuum_vacuum_threshold',
'autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor',
'autovacuum_vacuum_threshold',
'autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay',
'autovacuum_vacuum_cost_limit',
'vacuum_cost_limit',
'autovacuum_freeze_max_age',
'maintenance_work_mem',
'vacuum_freeze_min_age');

While these all affect autovacuum, some of the most important ones are:

• maintenance_work_mem

• autovacuum_freeze_max_age

• autovacuum_max_workers

• autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay

• Autovacuum_vacuum_cost_limit

Setting Table-Level Autovacuum Parameters

Autovacuum-related storage parameters can be set at a table level, which can be better than altering the behavior of the entire database. For large tables, you might need to set aggressive settings and you might not want to make autovacuum behave that way for all tables.

The following query shows which tables currently have table-level options in place.

SELECT relname, reloptions
FROM pg_class
WHERE reloptions IS NOT null;

An example where this might be useful is on tables that are much larger than the rest of your tables. Suppose that you have one 300-GB table and 30 other tables less than 1 GB. In this case, you might set some specific parameters for your large table so you don't alter the behavior of your entire system.

ALTER TABLE mytable set (autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay=0);

Doing this disables the cost-based autovacuum delay for this table at the expense of more resource usage on your system. Normally, autovacuum pauses for autovacuum_vacuum_cost_delay each time autovacuum_cost_limit is reached. You can find more details in the PostgreSQL documentation about cost-based vacuuming.

Autovacuum Logging

By default, the postgresql.log doesn't contain information about the autovacuum process. You can see output in the PostgreSQL error log from the autovacuum worker operations by setting the rds.force_autovacuum_logging_level parameter. Allowed values are disabled, debug5, debug4, debug3, debug2, debug1, info, notice, warning, error, log, fatal, and panic. The default value is disabled because the other allowable values can add significant amount of information to your logs.

We recommend that you set the value of the rds.force_autovacuum_logging_level parameter to log and that you set the log_autovacuum_min_duration parameter to a value from 1,000 to 5,000 milliseconds. If you set this value to 5,000, Amazon RDS writes any activity to the log that takes more than five seconds. It also shows "vacuum skipped" messages when application locking is causing autovacuum to intentionally skip tables. If you are troubleshooting a problem and need more detail, you can use a different logging level value, such as debug1 or debug3. Use these debug parameters for a short period of time because these settings produce extremely verbose content written to the error log file. For more information about these debug settings, see the PostgreSQL documentation.

Note

PostgreSQL allows the rds_superuser account to view autovacuum sessions in pg_stat_activity. For example, you can identify and terminate an autovacuum session that is blocking a command from running, or executing slower than a manually issued vacuum command.

Audit Logging for a PostgreSQL DB Instance

There are several parameters you can set to log activity that occurs on your PostgreSQL DB instance. These parameters include the following:

• The log_statement parameter can be used to log user activity in your PostgreSQL database. For more information, see PostgreSQL Database Log Files.

• The rds.force_admin_logging_level parameter logs actions by the RDS internal user (rdsadmin) in the databases on the DB instance, and writes the output to the PostgreSQL error log. Allowed values are disabled, debug5, debug4, debug3, debug2, debug1, info, notice, warning, error, log, fatal, and panic. The default value is disabled.

• The rds.force_autovacuum_logging_level parameter logs autovacuum worker operations in all databases on the DB instance, and writes the output to the PostgreSQL error log. Allowed values are disabled, debug5, debug4, debug3, debug2, debug1, info, notice, warning, error, log, fatal, and panic. The default value is disabled. The Amazon RDS recommended setting for rds.force_autovacuum_logging_level: is LOG. Set log_autovacuum_min_duration to a value from 1000 or 5000. Setting this value to 5,000 writes activity to the log that takes more than 5 seconds and shows "vacuum skipped" messages. For more information on this parameter, see Best Practices for Working with PostgreSQL.

Working with the pgaudit Extension

The pgaudit extension provides detailed session and object audit logging for Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL version 9.6.3 and later and version 9.5.7 version and later. You can enable session auditing or object auditing using this extension.

With session auditing, you can log audit events from various sources and includes the fully qualified command text when available. For example, you can use session auditing to log all READ statements that connect to a database by setting pgaudit.log to 'READ'.

With object auditing, you can refine the audit logging to work with specific commands. For example, you can specify that you want audit logging for READ operations on a specific number of tables.

To use object based logging with the pgaudit extension

1. Create a specific database role called rds_pgaudit. Use the following command to create the role.

   
   CREATE ROLE rds_pgaudit;
   CREATE ROLE
         

2. Modify the parameter group that is associated with your DB instance to use the shared preload libraries that contain pgaudit and set the parameter pgaudit.role. The pgaudit.role must be set to the role rds_pgaudit.

   The following command modifies a custom parameter group.

   
   aws rds modify-db-parameter-group 
      --db-parameter-group-name rds-parameter-group-96 
      --parameters "ParameterName=pgaudit.role,ParameterValue=rds_pgaudit,ApplyMethod=pending-reboot" 
      --parameters "ParameterName=shared_preload_libraries,ParameterValue=pgaudit,ApplyMethod=pending-reboot"
      --region us-west-2
         

3. Reboot the instance so that the DB instance picks up the changes to the parameter group. The following command reboots a DB instance.

   
   aws rds reboot-db-instance --db-instance-identifier rds-test-instance --region us-west-2
         

4. Run the following command to confirm that pgaudit has been initialized.

   
   show shared_preload_libraries;
   shared_preload_libraries 
   --------------------------
   rdsutils,pgaudit
   (1 row)
         

5. Run the following command to create the pgaudit extension.

   
   CREATE EXTENSION pgaudit;
   CREATE EXTENSION
         

6. Run the following command to confirm pgaudit.role is set to rds_pgaudit.

   
   show pgaudit.role;
   pgaudit.role 
   ------------------
   rds_pgaudit
         

To test the audit logging, run several commands that you have chosen to audit. For example, you might run the following commands.

CREATE TABLE t1 (id int);
CREATE TABLE
GRANT SELECT ON t1 TO rds_pgaudit;
GRANT
select * from t1;
id 
----
(0 rows)
    

The database logs should contain an entry similar to the following.

...
2017-06-12 19:09:49 UTC:…:rds_test@postgres:[11701]:LOG: AUDIT:
OBJECT,1,1,READ,SELECT,TABLE,public.t1,select * from t1;
...
    

For information on viewing the logs, see Amazon RDS Database Log Files.

Working with the pg_repack Extension

You can use the pg_repack extension to remove bloat from tables and indexes. This extension is supported on Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL versions 9.6.3 and later. For more information on the pg_repack extension, see the GitHub project documentation.

To use the pg_repack extension

1. Install the pg_repack extension on your Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL DB instance by running the following command.

   
   CREATE EXTENSION pg_repack;           
            

2. Use the pg_repack client utility to connect to a database. Use a database role that has rds_superuser privileges to connect to the database. In the following connection example, the rds_test role has rds_superuser privileges, and the database endpoint used is rds-test-instance.cw7jjfgdr4on8.us-west-2.rds.amazonaws.com.

   
   pg_repack -h rds-test-instance.cw7jjfgdr4on8.us-west-2.rds.amazonaws.com -U rds_test -k postgres           
            

   Connect using the -k option. The -a option is not supported.

3. The response from the pg_repack client provides information on the tables on the DB instance that are repacked.

   
   INFO: repacking table "pgbench_tellers"
   INFO: repacking table "pgbench_accounts"
   INFO: repacking table "pgbench_branches"
            

Working with PostGIS

PostGIS is an extension to PostgreSQL for storing and managing spatial information. If you are not familiar with PostGIS, you can get a good general overview at PostGIS Introduction.

You need to perform a bit of setup before you can use the PostGIS extension. The following list shows what you need to do; each step is described in greater detail later in this section.

• Connect to the DB instance using the master user name used to create the DB instance.

• Load the PostGIS extensions.

• Transfer ownership of the extensions to the rds_superuser role.

• Transfer ownership of the objects to the rds_superuser role.

• Test the extensions.

Step 1: Connect to the DB Instance Using the Master User Name Used to Create the DB Instance

First, you connect to the DB instance using the master user name that was used to create the DB instance. That name is automatically assigned the rds_superuser role. You need the rds_superuser role that is needed to do the remaining steps.

The following example uses SELECT to show you the current user; in this case, the current user should be the master username you chose when creating the DB instance.

select current_user;
 current_user
 -------------
  myawsuser
 (1 row) 

Step 2: Load the PostGIS Extensions

Use the CREATE EXTENSION statements to load the PostGIS extensions. You must also load the extension. You can then use the \dn psql command to list the owners of the PostGIS schemas.

create extension postgis;
CREATE EXTENSION
create extension fuzzystrmatch;
CREATE EXTENSION
create extension postgis_tiger_geocoder;
CREATE EXTENSION
create extension postgis_topology;
CREATE EXTENSION
\dn
     List of schemas
     Name     |   Owner
--------------+-----------
 public       | myawsuser
 tiger        | rdsadmin
 tiger_data   | rdsadmin
 topology     | rdsadmin
(4 rows) 

Step 3: Transfer Ownership of the Extensions to the rds_superuser Role

Use the ALTER SCHEMA statements to transfer ownership of the schemas to the rds_superuser role.

alter schema tiger owner to rds_superuser;
ALTER SCHEMA
alter schema tiger_data owner to rds_superuser;
ALTER SCHEMA
alter schema topology owner to rds_superuser;
ALTER SCHEMA
\dn
       List of schemas
     Name     |     Owner
--------------+---------------
 public       | myawsuser
 tiger        | rds_superuser
tiger_data    | rds_superuser
 topology     | rds_superuser
(4 rows) 

Step 4: Transfer Ownership of the Objects to the rds_superuser Role

Use the following function to transfer ownership of the PostGIS objects to the rds_superuser role. Run the following statement from the psql prompt to create the function.

CREATE FUNCTION exec(text) returns text language plpgsql volatile AS $f$ BEGIN EXECUTE $1; RETURN $1; END; $f$;      
      

Next, run this query to run the exec function that in turn executes the statements and alters the permissions.

SELECT exec('ALTER TABLE ' || quote_ident(s.nspname) || '.' || quote_ident(s.relname) || ' OWNER TO rds_superuser;')
  FROM (
    SELECT nspname, relname
    FROM pg_class c JOIN pg_namespace n ON (c.relnamespace = n.oid) 
    WHERE nspname in ('tiger','topology') AND
    relkind IN ('r','S','v') ORDER BY relkind = 'S')
s;  
      

Step 5: Test the Extensions

Add tiger to your search path using the following command.

SET search_path=public,tiger;         
      

Test tiger by using the following SELECT statement.

select na.address, na.streetname, na.streettypeabbrev, na.zip
from normalize_address('1 Devonshire Place, Boston, MA 02109') as na;
 address | streetname | streettypeabbrev |  zip
---------+------------+------------------+-------
       1 | Devonshire | Pl               | 02109
(1 row) 

Test topology by using the following SELECT statement.

select topology.createtopology('my_new_topo',26986,0.5);
 createtopology
----------------
              1
(1 row) 

Using pgBadger for Log Analysis with PostgreSQL

You can use a log analyzer such as pgbadger to analyze PostgreSQL logs. The pgbadger documentation states that the %l pattern (log line for session/process) should be a part of the prefix. However, if you provide the current rds log_line_prefix as a parameter to pgbadger it should still produce a report.

For example, the following command correctly formats an Amazon RDS PostgreSQL log file dated 2014-02-04 using pgbadger.

./pgbadger -p '%t:%r:%u@%d:[%p]:' postgresql.log.2014-02-04-00 

Viewing the Contents of pg_config

In PostgreSQL version 9.6.1, you can see the compile-time configuration parameters of the currently installed version of PostgreSQL using the new view pg_config. You can use the view by calling the pg_config function as shown in the following sample.

select * from pg_config();
       name        |             setting

-------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 BINDIR            | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/bin
 DOCDIR            | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/share/doc
 HTMLDIR           | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/share/doc
 INCLUDEDIR        | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/include
 PKGINCLUDEDIR     | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/include
 INCLUDEDIR-SERVER | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/include/server
 LIBDIR            | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib
 PKGLIBDIR         | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib
 LOCALEDIR         | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/share/locale
 MANDIR            | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/share/man
 SHAREDIR          | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/share
 SYSCONFDIR        | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/etc
 PGXS              | /rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib/pgxs/src/makefiles/pgxs.mk
 CONFIGURE         | '--prefix=/rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1' '--with-openssl' '--with-perl' 
 '--with-tcl' '--with-ossp-uuid' '--with-libxml' '--with-libraries=/rdsdbbin
/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib' '--with-includes=/rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/include' '--enable-debug'
 CC                | gcc
 CPPFLAGS          | -D_GNU_SOURCE -I/usr/include/libxml2 -I/rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/include
 CFLAGS            | -Wall -Wmissing-prototypes -Wpointer-arith -Wdeclaration-after-statement 
 -Wendif-labels -Wmissing-format-attribute -Wformat-security -fno-strict-
aliasing -fwrapv -fexcess-precision=standard -g -O2
 CFLAGS_SL         | -fpic
 LDFLAGS           | -L../../src/common -L/rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib -Wl,--as-needed -Wl,
 -rpath,'/rdsdbbin/postgres-9.6.1.R1/lib',--enable-new-dtags
 LDFLAGS_EX        |
 LDFLAGS_SL        |
 LIBS              | -lpgcommon -lpgport -lxml2 -lssl -lcrypto -lz -lreadline -lrt -lcrypt 
 -ldl -lm
 VERSION           | PostgreSQL 9.6.1
(23 rows)
    

If you attempt to access the view directly, the request fails.

select * from pg_config;
ERROR:  permission denied for relation pg_config
    

Working with the orafce Extension

The orafce extension provides functions that are common in commercial databases, and can make it easier for you to port a commercial database to PostgreSQL. Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL versions 9.6.6 and later support this extension. For more information about orafce, see the orafce project on GitHub.

Note

Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL doesn't support the utl_file package that is part of the orafce extension. This is because the utl_file schema functions provide read and write operations on operating-system text files, which requires superuser access to the underlying host.

To use the orafce extension

1. Connect to the DB instance with the master user name that you used to create the DB instance.

   Note

   If you want to enable orafce on a different database in the same instance, use the /c dbname psql command to change from the master database after initiating the connection.

2. Enable the orafce extension with the CREATE EXTENSION statement.

   CREATE EXTENSION orafce;

3. Transfer ownership of the oracle schema to the rds_superuser role with the ALTER SCHEMA statement.

   ALTER SCHEMA oracle OWNER TO rds_superuser;

   Note

   If you want to see the list of owners for the oracle schema, use the \dn psql command.

Accessing External Data with the postgres_fdw Extension

You can access data in a table on a remote database server with the postgres_fdw extension. If you set up a remote connection from your PostgreSQL DB instance, access is also available to your read replica.

To use postgres_fdw to access a remote database server

1. Install the postgres_fdw extension.

   
   CREATE EXTENSION postgres_fdw;
                   

2. Create a foreign data server using CREATE SERVER.

   
   CREATE SERVER foreign_server
   FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER postgres_fdw
   OPTIONS (host 'xxx.xx.xxx.xx', port '5432', dbname 'foreign_db'); 
           

3. Create a user mapping to identify the role to be used on the remote server.

   
   CREATE USER MAPPING FOR local_user
   SERVER foreign_server
   OPTIONS (user 'foreign_user', password 'password');           
           

4. Create a table that maps to the table on the remote server.

   
   CREATE FOREIGN TABLE foreign_table (
           id integer NOT NULL,
           data text)
   SERVER foreign_server
   OPTIONS (schema_name 'some_schema', table_name 'some_table');          
             
           

Using a Custom DNS Server for Outbound Network Access

Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL supports outbound network access on your DB instances and allows Domain Name Service (DNS) resolution from a custom DNS server owned by the customer. You can resolve only fully qualified domain names from your Amazon RDS DB instance through your custom DNS server.

Topics

• Enabling Custom DNS Resolution
• Disabling Custom DNS Resolution
• Setting Up a Custom DNS Server

Enabling Custom DNS Resolution

To enable DNS resolution in your customer VPC, associate a custom DB parameter group to your RDS PostgreSQL instance, turn on the rds.custom_dns_resolution parameter by setting it to 1, and then restart the DB instance for the changes to take place.

Disabling Custom DNS Resolution

To disable DNS resolution in your customer VPC, turn off the rds.custom_dns_resolution parameter of your custom DB parameter group by setting it to 0, then restart the DB instance for the changes to take place.

Setting Up a Custom DNS Server

After you set up your custom DNS name server, it takes up to 30 minutes to propagate the changes to your DB instance. After the changes are propagated to your DB instance, all outbound network traffic requiring a DNS lookup queries your DNS server over port 53.

Note

If you don't set up a custom DNS server, and rds.custom_dns_resolution is set to 1, hosts are resolved using a Route 53 private zone. For more information, see Working with Private Hosted Zones.

To set up a custom DNS server for your Amazon RDS PostgreSQL DB instance

1. From the DHCP options set attached to your VPC, set the domain-name-servers option to the IP address of your DNS name server. For more information, see DHCP Options Sets.

   Note

   The domain-name-servers option accepts up to four values, but your Amazon RDS DB instance uses only the first value.

2. Ensure that your DNS server can resolve all lookup queries, including public DNS names, Amazon EC2 private DNS names, and customer-specific DNS names. If the outbound network traffic contains any DNS lookups that your DNS server can't handle, your DNS server must have appropriate upstream DNS providers configured.

3. Configure your DNS server to produce User Datagram Protocol (UDP) responses of 512 bytes or less.

4. Configure your DNS server to produce Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) responses of 1024 bytes or less.

5. Configure your DNS server to allow inbound traffic from your Amazon RDS DB instances over port 53. If your DNS server is in an Amazon VPC, the VPC must have a security group that contains inbound rules that allow UDP and TCP traffic on port 53. If your DNS server is not in an Amazon VPC, it must have appropriate firewall whitelisting to allow UDP and TCP inbound traffic on port 53.

   For more information, see Security Groups for Your VPC and Adding and Removing Rules.

6. Configure the VPC of your Amazon RDS DB instance to allow outbound traffic over port 53. Your VPC must have a security group that contains outbound rules that allow UDP and TCP traffic on port 53.

   For more information, see Security Groups for Your VPC and Adding and Removing Rules.

7. The routing path between the Amazon RDS DB instance and the DNS server has to be configured correctly to allow DNS traffic.

   If the Amazon RDS DB instance and the DNS server are not in the same VPC, a peering connection has to be set up between them. For more information, see What is VPC Peering?

Restricting Password Management

You can restrict who can manage database user passwords to a special role. By doing this, you can have more control over password management on the client side.

You enable restricted password management with the static parameter rds.restrict_password_commands and use a role called rds_password. When the parameter rds.restrict_password_commands is set to 1, only users that are members of the rds_password role can run certain SQL commands. The restricted SQL commands are commands that modify database user passwords and password expiration time.

To use restricted password management, your DB instance must be running Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL 10.6 or higher. Because the rds.restrict_password_commands parameter is static, changing this parameter requires a database restart.

When a database has restricted password management enabled, if you try to run restricted SQL commands you get the following error: ERROR: must be a member of rds_password to alter passwords.

Following are some examples of SQL commands that are restricted when restricted password management is enabled.

postgres=> CREATE ROLE myrole WITH PASSWORD 'mypassword';
postgres=> CREATE ROLE myrole WITH PASSWORD 'mypassword' VALID UNTIL '2020-01-01';
postgres=> ALTER ROLE myrole WITH PASSWORD 'mypassword' VALID UNTIL '2020-01-01';
postgres=> ALTER ROLE myrole WITH PASSWORD 'mypassword';
postgres=> ALTER ROLE myrole VALID UNTIL '2020-01-01';
postgres=> ALTER ROLE myrole RENAME TO myrole2;

Some ALTER ROLE commands that include RENAME TO might also be restricted. They might be restricted because renaming a PostgreSQL role that has an MD5 password clears the password.

The rds_superuser role has membership for the rds_password role by default, and you can't change this. You can give other roles membership for the rds_password role by using the GRANT SQL command. We recommend that you give membership to rds_password to only a few roles that you use solely for password management. These roles require the CREATEROLE attribute to modify other roles.

Make sure that you verify password requirements such as expiration and needed complexity on the client side. We recommend that you restrict password-related changes by using your own client-side utility. This utility should have a role that is a member of rds_password and has the CREATEROLE role attribute.